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How to avoid (or not) to pay goodwill compensation (clientele) in agency contracts
6 2 月 2019
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When should an agency agreement be considered “international”?
Pursuant to the international private rules applicable in Italy (Art.1 Reg. 593/08 “Rome I”) an agreement is deemed “international” in the presence of “situations involving a conflict of laws”.
The situations which more often involve a conflict of laws in agency agreements– making them “international” – are (i) the principal’s seat being located in a country different from the agent’s seat country; or (ii) the agreement being performed abroad, even when the principal’s and the agent’s seats are both located in the same country.
When does Italian law apply to an agency agreement?
Under the “Rome I” Regulation, in principle Italian law may apply to an international agency agreement (i) if it is chosen by the parties as the law governing the agreement (either expressly, or as otherwise allowed by Art.3); or (ii) absent any choice of law, when the agent has its residence or seat in Italy (according to the “residence” concept under Article 19).
What are the main regulations of agency agreements in Italy?
The substantial regulations of agency agreements in Italy, with particular regard to the principal-agent relationship, can be found mainly in articles from 1742 to 1753 of the Civil Code. Such rules have been repeatedly modified following the adoption of the Directive 653/86/EC.
What is the role of the collective bargaining agreements?
Since many years, collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) have also been regulating agency agreements. These are agreements made on a regular basis between the associations representing principals and agents in different sectors (manufacture, trade and several others).
From a legal effectiveness perspective, a distinction can be drawn between two types of CBAs, i.e. CBAs having the force of law (effective “erga omnes”) – whose rules are however quite broad and thus have a limited scope of application – and CBAs of a contractual nature (“di diritto comune”) that have been signed from time to time over the years, and are meant to bind only those principals and agents which are members of those associations.
In general, CBAs intend to implement the Civil Code rules and those of the Directive 653/86. However, contractual CBAs often deviate from those rules, and some deviations are substantial. For example, CBAs allow a principal to unilaterally modify the agent’s territory, the contractual products, the range of customers, the commission. CBAs determine in a partially different manner the duration of the notice period when indefinite term agreements are terminated. CBAs have their own calculation of the agent’s remuneration for the post-contractual non-competition covenant. CBAs have peculiar regulations concerning the termination indemnity.
With particular regard to the contract termination indemnity, there have been serious issues of compliance between the CBAs and the Directive 653/86/CE. Indeed, such issues still remain unsolved despite some rulings from the EUCJ, because the Italian courts’ constant jurisprudence keeps the CBAs’ indemnity provisions in force.
According to the majority of scholarly opinions and case law, CBAs’ geographical scope of application is limited to the Italian territory.
Therefore, CBAs automatically apply to agency agreements which are governed by Italian law and are performed by the agent in Italy; but – in case of contractual CBAs – subject to the further condition that both parties are members to associations that entered into such Agreements. According to some scholars, it is sufficient that the principal alone is a member of such an association.
Even in the absence of such cumulative conditions, however, contractual CBAs may nonetheless apply if they are expressly referred to in the agency agreement, or their provisions are constantly complied with by the parties.
What are the other main requirements in agency agreements?
The “Enasarco”
Enasarco is a private law Foundation with which agents in Italy must be registered by law.
The Enasarco Foundation mainly administers a supplementary pension fund for agents, and a termination indemnity fund, called “FIRR” (referring to the termination indemnity as calculated in accordance with the criteria set forth by the CBAs in the different sectors).
Typically, a principal in a “domestic” agency agreement registers the agent with the Enasarco and pays contributions to both the above funds on a regular basis throughout the whole term of the agency agreement.
However, while registration and contribution to the pension fund are always mandatory as they are provided for by the law, contributions to the FIRR are instead mandatory only for those agency agreements which are governed by contractual CBAs.
Which rules apply to international agency agreements?
As far as registration with the Enasarco is concerned, the law and regulatory provisions are not so clear. However, important clarifications were provided by the Ministry of Labor in 2013 answering to a specific question (19.11.13 n.32).
Making reference to the European legislation (EC Regulation n.883/2004 as amended by Regulation n. 987/2009) the Ministry stated that registration with the Enasarco is mandatory in the following cases:
- agents operating in the Italian territory, in the name and on behalf of Italian or foreign principals having a seat or an office in Italy;
- Italian or foreign agents operating in Italy in the name and/or on behalf of Italian or foreign principals with or without a seat or office in Italy;
- agents residing in Italy and performing a substantial part of their activities in Italy;
- agents not residing in Italy, but having their main center of interest in Italy;
- agents habitually operating in Italy, but performing their activity exclusively abroad for a period not exceeding 24 months.
The above-mentioned Regulations obviously do not apply to those agency agreements that are to be performed outside the EU. Therefore, it should be checked case by case whether any international treaties binding the parties’ countries provide for the application of the Italian social security legislation.
Chamber of Commerce and Register of Businesses
Anyone wanting to start a business as a commercial agent in Italy, must file a “SCIA” (Certified Notice of Business Start) with the Chamber of Commerce having local jurisdiction. The Chamber of Commerce then registers the agent with the Register of Businesses if the agent is organized as a business entity, otherwise it registers the agent with a special section of the “REA” (List of Business and Administrative Information) of the same Chamber (see Legislative Decree n.59 dated 26.3.2010, implementing the Directive 2006/123/EC “Services Directive”).
Such formalities have replaced the former registration to the agents’ roll (“ruolo agenti”) which was abolished by said law. The new law also provides for a number of other mandatory requirements for agents wishing to start an activity. Such requirements concern education, experience, clean criminal records, etc.
Although failure to comply with the new registration requirements does not affect the validity of the agency agreement, a principal should nevertheless check that the Italian agent is registered before appointing him, as this is a mandatory requirement anyway.
Venue for disputes (art.409 and following of the Civil Procedure Code)
Pursuant to Article 409 and following of the Civil Procedure Code, if the agent mainly performs its contractual duties as an individual even if independently (so-called “parasubordinato” i.e. “semi-subordinate” agent) – provided the agency agreement is governed by Italian laws and Italian courts have jurisdiction – any disputes arising from the agency agreement shall be submitted to the Labor Court in the district where the agent is domiciled (see article 413 of the CPC) and the court proceedings shall be conducted according to procedural rules similar to those applicable to employment-related disputes.
In principle, said rules shall apply when the agent enters into the agreement as an individual or sole entrepreneur, while according to the majority of scholars and jurisprudence they do not apply when the agent is a company.
Applying the rules above to the most common situations in international agency agreements
Let’s now try to apply the rules described until now to the most frequent situations in international agency agreements, keeping in mind that those below are simple examples, while in the “real world” one should carefully check the circumstances of each specific case.
- Italian principal and foreign agent – agreement to be performed abroad
Italian law: it governs the agreement if chosen by the parties, without prejudice to any public policy (internationally mandatory) rules in the country where the agent has its residence and performs, pursuant to the Rome I Regulation.
CBAs: they do not govern the agreement automatically (because the agent performs abroad) but only when they have been expressly referred to in the agreement, or de facto applied. This could happen more or less intentionally, for example when an Italian principal uses with foreign agents the same contract forms as with Italian agents, which usually include many references to the CBAs.
Enasarco: typically, there are no registration or contribution obligations in favor of a non-Italian agent whose residence is abroad and performing his contractual duties only abroad.
Chamber of Commerce: there is no obligation to register in the above circumstances.
Procedural rules (article 409 and following, CPC): if Italian courts are properly chosen as the jurisdiction for all disputes, a foreign agent even if being an individual or sole entrepreneur may not take advantage of this provision to move the case to the courts of his own country. This is because art.413 cpc is a domestic provision on venue which presupposes the agent’s seat to be in Italy. Further, the jurisdiction rules set forth by the EU legislation should prevail, as was ruled by the Italian Court of Cassation and stated by important scholars.
- Foreign principal and Italian agent – agreement to be performed in Italy
Italian law: it governs the agreement if chosen by the parties or, even in the absence of any choice, as an effect of the agent having his residence or seat in Italy.
CBAs: those having force of law (“erga omnes”) govern the agreement, whereas those having contractual nature are unlikely to apply automatically, as the foreign principal typically would not be a member to any of the Italian associations having signed a CBA. However, they might apply if referred to in the agreement or de facto applied.
Enasarco: a foreign principal shall register the Italian agent to the Enasarco. Failure to do so might imply penalties and/or damages claims from the agent. As a consequence of such registration, the principal will have to contribute to the social security fund, while he should not be obliged to contribute to the FIRR (fund for termination indemnity). However, a principal who makes regular contributions to the FIRR even when not due, might be considered as having impliedly accepted the CBAs as applicable to the agency agreement.
Chamber of Commerce: the Italian agent has to be registered with the Chamber of Commerce and therefore the principal should make sure that the agent has complied with this requirement before entering into the agreement.
Procedural rules (art.409 and following, CPC): if Italian courts have jurisdiction (whether by the parties’ choice or as the place of performance of the services pursuant to Regulation 1215/12) and the agent is an individual or a sole entrepreneur with a seat in Italy, these rules should apply.
- Italian principal and Italian agent– agreement to be performed abroad
Italian law: it governs the agreement if chosen by the parties, or, in the absence of any choice, if the agent has his residence or seat in Italy.
CBAs: they would not apply (as the agent performs abroad) unless expressly referred to in the agreement, or de facto applied.
Enasarco: according to the Ministry of Labor’s opinion, registration is mandatory when the agent, although being engaged to work abroad, has his residence and performs a substantial part of his business in Italy, or has in Italy his center of interest, or performs abroad for a period not exceeding 24 months, provided the EU Regulations apply. In case the agency agreement is to be performed in a non-EU country, it has to assessed from time to time whether registration is mandatory.
Chamber of Commerce: an agent having started his business and established as an entity in Italy is in principle obliged to register with the Chamber of Commerce.
Procedural Rules (articles 409 and following of the CPC): the rules apply if the agent is an Italian based individual or sole entrepreneur and the Italian jurisdiction is agreed upon.
- Foreign principal and foreign agent – agreement to be performed in Italy
Italian law: in principle, it governs the agreement only if chosen by the parties.
CBAs: if the agreement is governed by Italian law, the CBAs having force of law apply, while those having contractual value will not apply unless expressly referred to, or de facto applied.
Enasarco: according to the Ministry of Labor’s opinion, when EU Regulations apply, registration may be required from a foreign principal in favor of an agent residing abroad, if such agent operates in Italy or has his center of interest in Italy. Otherwise, a case by case analysis will be needed under the applicable laws.
Chamber of Commerce: in principle, an agent established as an entity abroad is not obliged to register in Italy. However, the issue could be more complex if the agent has a seat and performs his activity mainly in Italy. Such circumstances may also affect the determination of the law governing the agency agreement.
Procedural Rules (articles 409 and following of the CPC): absent any different choice, Italian courts might have jurisdiction as Italy is the place of performance of the services. However, the above-mentioned rules should not apply if the agent has no seat or residence in Italy.
Conclusive remarks
Hopefully this analysis, though not exhaustive, can help understanding the possible consequences of applying Italian law to an international agency agreement, and to make prudent choices when drafting the agreement. As always, we recommend not to rely on standard contract forms or precedents without having paid due attention to all the circumstances of each case.
The Spanish Law of the Agency Contract and the European Directive provide for the agent -except in certain cases-, goodwill compensation (clientele) when the relationship is terminated, based on the remuneration received by the Agent during the life of the contract. It is, then, a burden that in general every Principal will have pending when the contract ends.
The temptation is to try to get rid of that payment and for this clients consult us frequently about strategies or tactics. I will try to summarize some of them indicating the chances of success (or not) that may have, both in the negotiation / drafting phase of the contract, and in the resolution phase.
- Change the name of the contract
The first idea is to make a contract “similar” to the agency or call it in a different way (services, intermediation, representation contracts…). However, the change of name does not have any incidence since the contracts “are what they are” and not what the parties call them. So if there is a continued mediation in exchange for remuneration, there is a good chance that a judge will consider it an agency contract, whatever we call it, and with all its consequences.
- Limitation of compensation in the contract
Another temptation in the drafting phase of the contract is to agree compensation less than the maximum legally envisaged, provide for payment in advance for the duration of the contract, or directly eliminate it.
None of these solutions would be valid if they try to reduce the possibility of the Agent to receive the legal maximum, or for reasons not foreseen in the Law or the Directive. The law is imperative.
- Linking different agency contracts
Given that the compensation is calculated according to the remunerations of the last five years and the clientele created, the temptation is to link several shorter contracts to consider only the clients of the last period.
This will not necessarily be a good idea if most of the customers were created last year for instance, but it may also be useless because the Spanish law and the Directive provide that the fixed-term contract that continues to be executed becomes indefinite. The judge may consider all linked contracts as one.
For this strategy to have the possibility of being useful, it would be necessary to liquidate each substituted contract, declare that “nothing has to be claimed by the parties” and that the successive contracts are sufficiently separated and have different entities, drafting, extension, etc. If the procedure is well thought out, it could be a way to get rid of a greater indemnity by clientele: a well-written pact whereby the agent declares the compensation received, and the following contract does not mimic the content and immediately to the previous one.
- Submitting the agreement to a foreign law
In international contracts the temptation is to submit the contract to a right that is not Spanish, particularly when the Principal has that citizenship.
The idea can be good or bad according to the chosen law and as long as it has some relation with the business. As is known, in the EU the Directive establishes minimum conditions that national laws must respect. But nothing prevents these laws from providing more advantageous conditions for agents. This means that, for example, choosing French law would be, in general, a bad idea for the Principal because compensation in that country is usually higher.
In some cases, the choice of a law outside the European Union that does not provide compensation for clientele when the agent is European has been rejected because that the minimum right recognized in the Directive has not been respected.
- Submit the contract to non-national rules and judges
Another less frequent possibility is to submit the contract to rules not from a country, but to general commercial norms (Lex Mercatoria) and to agree on a lower compensation.
This is very uncommon and may not be very useful depending on who is to interpret the contract and where the agent resides. If, for example, the agent resides in Spain and who is going to interpret the contract is a Spanish judge, he will most likely interpret the contract according to his/her own rules without being bound by what the contract envisages. This clause would have been useless.
- Submit the contract to arbitration
The question will be different if the contract is subject to arbitration. In this case, arbitrators are not necessarily subject to interpreting a contract according to their own national regulations if the contract is subject to different one. In this case, it would be possible that they felt freer to consider the contract exclusively, especially when the agent was not of their nationality, did not know what the law of the agent’s country and was not bound by the guarantees provided for his protection.
- Mediation in the agency contract
Mediation is an alternative dispute resolution system that can also be used in agency contracts. In mediation, the parties resolve the dispute by themselves with the help of a mediator.
In this case, given that the mediator is not deciding, it is possible for the parties to freely reach an agreement whereby the agent agrees to a minor indemnification if, for example, other advantages are conferred upon him, if he comes to the conviction of having less right, difficulty of proof, if he prefers to save other costs, time, energy for your new business, etc.
Mediators ensure the balance of the parties, but nothing prevents them to agree a compensation lower than the legal maximum (after the conclusion of the contract it is possible to negotiate a lower than the legal maximum). To foresee the possibility of mediation in the agency contract is, therefore, a good idea: this will permit the parties to better address and negotiate this compensation. In addition, providing for mediation does not limit the rights of any of the parties to withdraw and continue through the courts demanding the legal maximum.
- Imputing to the agent a previous breach
When the contract ends, this is undoubtedly the cause that is most often attempted: when the contract is to be resolved, the Principal tries to argue that the Agent has previously failed to comply and that this is why the contract is being resolved.
The law and the Directive exempt the payment of goodwill compensation when the agent has breach his obligations. But in that case, the Principal must be able to prove it when the agent discusses it. And it will not always be easy. The Principal must provide clear evidence and for this it will be convenient to collect information and documentation on the breach sufficiently and in advance and of sufficient importance (minor breaches are not usually accepted). Therefore, if the Principal wishes to follow this path it is advisable to prepare the arguments and evidences time before the agreement ends. It is strongly recommend contacting an expert advisor as soon as possible: he will help you to minimize the risks.
Commercial agents are very suitable for expanding one’s business into new markets – especially for two reasons: First, because they generally have a good expertise of the market (especially if they reside in that country). Second, because their remuneration (“commission”) can be configurated completely profit-oriented (= remunerated only if they successfully negotiate a new transaction), and related to the turnover they generate.
Nevertheless, both the supplier and the commercial agent may feel the need for an initial period, in which both get to know each other, the product, the market and the customers as good as possible to subsequently evaluate how to proceed on that market. Therefore, they may agree on a trial period within which the commercial agency contract can be terminated more easily and sooner than without or after such trial period, e.g.:
“This Agreement shall come into effect on [●] and shall be in force for a trial period of [●] months (“Trial Period”) during which each Party can terminate the Agreement with [●] months written notice. After such Trial Period, the Agreement shall continue indefinitely, unless terminated according to the rules below.”
Even if the agency agreement is terminated within such trial period, however, the agent may be entitled to indemnity or compensation – as the Court of Justice of the EU just now confirmed (Case Conseils et mise en relations (CMR) SARL, decision of 19 April 2018, C-645/16).
The court basically argues with the wording, context and objective of the Commercial Agency Directive:
- The Commercial Agency Directive also applies to ‘”trial periods”.
- Ending a commercial agency contract – even within an agreed trial period – constitutes a “termination” of the agency contract, which triggers the claims for indemnity or compensation – because the commercial agency contract has already been definitively concluded (understanding contrary to French case law, e.g. Cour de Cassation, Case No. 14-17894).
- Goodwill indemnity or compensation are not forfeited because termination within the trial period is not included in the exhaustive list of exceptions in Article 18 Commercial Agency Directive.
- The parties may derogate from the commercial agent’s mandatory rights only from the end of the contract (Article 19 Commercial Agency Directive) because the Commercial Agency Directive aims to protect the commercial agent vis-à-vis the principal (recital 2 of the Commercial Agency Directive).
Practical tips
- Parties are free to agree on trial periods because it is covered by freedom of contract.
- At termination, the commercial agent is, as a matter of principle, entitled to an indemnity or compensation – to “indemnify the agent for his past services from which the principal will continue to benefit beyond the termination”, as the EU Court of Justice now put it. Whether the agent can claim indemnity or compensation depends on the law chosen by the parties (or, in absence of choice, by the law of the country where the commercial agent has his habitual residence).
- As far as the indemnity (payable e.g. according to German law) is concerned, its amount strongly depends on the commercial agent’s performance during the term of the contract – because the claim accrues if and to the extent that (i) the agent has brought the principal new customers or (ii) has significantly increased the business with existing customers and (iii) the principal continues to derive substantial benefits from such business, plus (iv) such indemnity must be equitable. As a maximum, the indemnity shall not exceed of the past five years’ average annual remuneration (including commissions and other payments). Such possible costs should therefore be included in one’s business planning before starting to distribute products or services through commercial agents.
- Throughout the EU, agency agreements are widespread in a vast variety of industries: roughly 740,000 commercial agents operate for 1.7 million companies and generate sales of EUR 260 billion. These figures from 2012 keep growing as indicate Eurostat’s data, reported by the European Commission in its Refit Evaluation. The EU Member States with the most commercial agents are Slovakia (35k) Czech Republic (42k), Germany (42k), France (50k), Spain (50k) and – by far – Italy (220k). If the agent operates outside the European Economic Area, Principals and commercial agents are free to derogate even from the otherwise mandatory Commercial Agency Directive, especially if German law is chosen. For details, please see the article “Commercial Agents outside the EEA – No Goodwill Indemnity (Ingmar reloaded)”.
- Alternatively, one can also do business through distributors or franchisees or other intermediaries – where, however, an indemnity may arise at well, especially vis-à-vis distributors. For details, see the article “German Distributor Indemnity – How to avoid it”.
If you want to develop your distribution network abroad, a network of commercial agents is the easiest way, and France is no exception. Before entering into an agency contract ruled by French law, it is nevertheless advisable to know its main features, which will be discussed in this post.
Definition
A commercial agent is a professional representative who negotiates and eventually concludes contracts in the name of and on behalf of his principal.
The French Commercial Code (Article L134-1) defines a commercial agent precisely as:
«L’agent commercial est défini comme un mandataire qui, à titre de profession indépendante, sans être lié par un contrat de louage de services, est chargé, de façon permanente, de négocier et, éventuellement, de conclure des contrats de vente, d’achat, de location ou de prestation de services, au nom et pour le compte de producteurs, d’industriels de commerçants ou d’autres agents commerciaux.»
«The commercial agent is an agent who, as an independent professional, without being bound by an employment contract, is in a permanent position to negotiate and eventually to enter into contracts for the sale, purchase, rent/hire or performance of service in the name and on behalf of manufacturers, industrialists, traders or other commercial agents.»
The definition shows that the agent is independent: he/she is free to organise his/her own employment activity and business (sole agency, limited company etc.). This notion is fundamental, because the more the agent will be present and active in the organisation of the principal activity, the more the contract will be at risk of being requalified as a VRP (employee contract of sales representative) contract by the courts.
In the spirit of the contractual relationship and in the drafting of the contract itself, one must be very careful not to confuse an agent with a VRP since, according to French law, the latter is considered an employee, with greater rights and compensation for termination of contract.
Requirements
The agent must be registered in the register of commercial agents at the Registry of the Commercial Court at his place of domicile.
Contract form
The written form is not mandatory but strongly recommended. Article L134-2 of the Commercial Code provides that each party may request both the contract and addenda to be in writing.
Execution of the contract – important clauses
- Duration: for a fixed period or indefinite.
- Fee: a commission freely defined between the parties.
- Territory: it is very important to define the territory with precision and avoid wide generic clauses such as “world”.
- Exclusive: the clause must specify whether the exclusivity is in relation to the territory and/or on the clientele in a precise manner and if the principal reserves the right to intervene.
- Notice of withdrawal (Article L134-11, paragraph 3 of the Commercial Code): 1 month for the first year, 2 months for the second year, 3 months thereafter.
Post-contract – important clauses
Post-contractual non-competition clauses (Article L134-14 of the Commercial Code) must be in written form and limited to a maximum of 2 years post-contract.
The non-competition clauses restriction (territory, customers, products) must not be so restrictive as to prohibit the agent from working after the end of the contract. Therefore customers and products included in the agreement must be competitors of the type of goods subject of the agency contract. Otherwise, the courts will consider the clause as null and non-existent, entitling the agent to claim compensation.
French law does not provide any compensation for compliance with this clause.
After termination of the contract, the agent is entitled to an indemnity for termination as compensation (Article L134-12 of the Commercial Code). It is a rule of public order, therefore, the clause that provides for an exemption of this entitlement will be considered null and non-existent.
The agent has one year to assert this right to severance indemnity.
There is no requirement of keeping it in writing, however, it is advisable to write a notice of receipt as proof of the termination.
The amount of the compensation is equal to two years of commissions (gross) received by the agent. This is to be seen as a maximum measure and it is up to the principal to prove the reason as to why the agent should be entitled to a lower compensation.
In the event of litigation, the courts will at their discretion evaluate the amount of the request of a maximum of two years.
Cases in which compensation is not due:
- Assignment of the contract to another agent;
- Termination of the contract by the agent;
- Serious non-fulfilment of the contract by the agent.
Serious breach of contract can result from the non-fulfilment of clauses that are defined in the contract as important or must be assessed from time to time with the advice of your lawyer.
Focus: the termination of contract due to retirement
The agent is entitled to the indemnity for termination as compensation also when he/she ceases the activity and retires.
French jurisprudence (in particular the jurisprudence of the Court of Cassation), however, requires a more specific check of the reason for the termination of the contract: the agent must not only claim to be entitled to the retirement pension, he should also assert he is not in physical conditions to be able to work anymore.
Which is the competent French court?
Even if the agent is a trading company, the nature of the contract is still civil. By virtue of this, the competent court varies according to the person who brings the claim.
If the agent is the claimant, he can choose between “tribunal de grande instance” and “tribunal de commerce”.
If, on the other hand, the principal is the claimant, he must also begin the claim before the “tribunal de grande instance”.
Based on our experience in many years advising and representing companies in the commercial distribution (in Spanish jurisdiction but with foreign manufacturers or distributors), the following are the six key essential elements for manufacturers (suppliers) and retailers (distributors) when establishing a distribution relationship.
These ideas are relevant when companies intend to start their commercial relationship but they should not be neglected and verified even when there are already existing contacts.
The signature of the contract
Although it could seem obvious, the signature of a distribution agreement is less common than it might seem. It often happens that along the extended relationship, the corporate structures change and what once was signed with an entity, has not been renewed, adapted, modified or replaced when the situation has been transformed. It is very convenient to have well documented the relationship at every moment of its existence and to be sure that what has been covered legally is also enforceable y the day-to-day commercial relationship. It is advisable this work to be carried out by legal specialists closely with the commercial department of the company. Perfectly drafted clauses from a legal standpoint will be useless if overtaken or not understood by the day-to-day activity. And, of course, no contract is signed as a “mere formality” and then modified by verbal agreements or practices.
The proper choice of contract
If the signature of the distribution contract is important, the choice of the correct type is essential. Many of the conflicts that occur, especially in long-term relationships, begin with the interpretation of the type of relationship that has been signed. Even with a written text (and with an express title), the intention of the parties remains often unclear (and so the agreement). Is the “distributor” really so? Does he buy and resell or there are only sporadic supply relationships? Is there just a representative activity (ie, the distributor is actually an “agent“)? Is there a mixed relationship (sometimes represents, sometimes buys and resells)? The list could continue indefinitely. Even in many of the relationships that currently exist I am sure that the interpretation given by the Supplier and the Distributor could be different.
Monitoring of legal and business relations
If it is quite frequent not to have a clear written contract, it happens in almost all the distribution relationships than once the agreement has been signed, the day-to-day commercial activity modifies what has been agreed. Why commercial relations seem to neglect what has been written in an agreement? It is quite frequent contracts in which certain obligations for distributors are included (reporting on the market, customers, minimum purchases), but which in practice are not respected (it seems complicated, there is a good relationship between the parties, and nobody remembers what was agreed by people no longer working at the company…). However, it is also quite frequent to try to use these (real?) defaults later on when the relationship starts having problems. At that moment, parties try to hide behind these violations to terminate the contracts although these practices were, in a sort of way, accepted as a new procedure. Of course no agreement can last forever and for that reason is highly recommendable a joint and periodical monitoring between the legal adviser (preferably an independent one with the support of the general managers) and the commercial department to take into account new practices and to have a provision in the contractual documents.
Evidences about customers
In distribution contracts, evidences about customers will be essential in case of termination. Parties (mainly the supplier) are quite interested in showing evidences on who (supplier or distributor) procured the customers. Are they a result of the distributor activity or are they obtained as a consequence of the reputation of the trademark? Evidences on customers could simplify or even avoid future conflicts. The importance of the clientele and its possible future activity will be a key element to define the compensation to which the distributor will pretend to be eligible.
Evidences on purchases and sales
Another essential element and quite often forgotten is the justification of purchases to the supplier and subsequent sales by distributors. In any distribution agreement distributors acquire the products and resell them to the final customers. A future compensation to the distributor will consider the difference between the purchase prices and resale prices (the margin). It is therefore advisable to be able to establish the correspondent evidence on such information in order to better prepare a possible claim.
Damages in case of termination of contracts
Similarly, it would be convenient to justify what damages have been suffered as a result of the termination of a contract: has the distributor made investments by indication of the supplier that are still to be amortized? Has the distributor hired new employees for a line of business that have to be dismissed because of the termination of the contract (costs of compensation)? Has the distributor rented new premises signing long-term contracts due to the expectations on the agreement? Please, take into account that the Distributor is an independent trader and, as such, he assumes the risks of his activity. But to the extent he is acting on a distribution network he shall be subject to the directions, suggestions and expectations created by the supplier. These may be relevant to later determine the damages caused by the termination of the contract.
Brazilian legislation requires every nonresident that holds quotas, capital or shares of a Brazilian company appoints an attorney-in-fact that resides in the country, with powers to receive service of process.
Besides granting the power required by law, foreign partners usually grant other powers to their attorneys-in-fact, in order to facilitate the procedures, since all documents executed abroad must be notarized and Apostilled, and once they arrive in Brazil they must be translated by a sworn translator and registered before the Public Registry of Titles and Documents, in order to be valid in Brazil, which is time and money consuming.
Also, all foreign companies holding quotas, capital or shares of the Brazilian company, need a Taxpayer number, called CNPJ. The taxpayer number is not for tax payment purposes, but for controlling purposes only. The foreign partners / holder need to grant a power of attorney for their enrollment at CNPJ, and representation before the Federal Revenue in all matters.
By the time the company is incorporated the Power of Attorney granting the above-mentioned mandatory powers must be presented before the Board of Trade.
Moreover, all Foreign Direct Investment must be registered at the Central Bank of Brazil. This means that every time the foreign shareholder/partner transfers money to the Brazilian company as investment, the respective exchange agreement must be registered at the Central Bank. Such registration is done electronically.
The main effects of such registration are the possibility of remitting dividends and of repatriating the capital invested.
In view of the above, the documents to be presented at the incorporation of a company in Brazil are:
- Power of Attorney granting to a Brazilian resident powers to accept service of process, for enrollment at CNPJ and representation before the Federal Revenue;
- In case the foreign partners/shareholders/holder are/is a natural person, a copy of his/her passport;
- In case the foreign partners/shareholders/holder are/is a legal entity:
– Copy of the passport of the legal representative of the foreign partners/shareholders/holder; and
– Updated Certificate issued by the Board of Trade of the foreign partners/shareholders/holder’s head offices attesting: (a) its existence and good standing, and (b) its legal representatives for the purposes of evidencing that the company was duly represented in the Power of Attorney granted. This document (or a separate one issued by a public authority) must also contain the head offices address, name of shareholders, capital and objectives.
Note that all documents need to be duly notarized and apostilled. Once they arrive in Brazil, they will undergo sworn translation and will be registered at the Public Registry Office in order to be valid.
We would like to point out that the Federal Revenue and commercial banks have increasingly been requesting a series of complementary documents for compliance reasons, so that the final beneficiaries (natural person) of each foreign company holding quotas, capital or shares of Brazilian entities may be identified.
At the chosen bank’s own discretion, other documents may be necessary, as balance sheets, statements and corporate documentation until the end controller (natural person) is identified. These documents must be presented for the opening of a bank account, and banks have been taking quite some time to open the account.
当进入新市场时，有不同的经销策略可供选择（1）在零售，汽车和批发贸易中，经销协议相当普遍（2）在国际经销协议中，双方可以选择适用的法律（3）无论是否被选择，适用的法律仍可能含有令人不快的条款，如德国法律下的商誉赔偿（4）本文将会展示如何可以避免这种令人不快的条款- 参考德国联邦法院（5）的2016年最新判决。
一．进入新市场
进入新市场时，存在不同的结构。选择哪一个取决于所期望的策略：让自己的员工直接销售，或者通过销售商，特许经营商，佣金代理商等销售代理间接销售贴牌产品，或者在许可范围内制造和销售第三方产品。有关德国销售的详细信息，请参阅Legalmondo上发布的“德国经销协议”。
二.经销协议
在零售（特别是电子，化妆品，珠宝，一些时尚用品），汽车和批发贸易中，分销系统是特别常见的 – 无论销售中介是否是指“分销商”，“中间商”，“经销商”，“专业零售商”，“特许经销商”，或“授权经销商”。经销商是个体经营的、独立的承包商，不断以自己的名义和自己的账户出售和推广产品。他们承担销售风险，反之亦然 – 制造商的利润相当低。经销商受到的保护通常较商业代理人少（在欧盟内，1986自营商业代理人的指令适用于欧盟成员国的各自的国家法律。）与销售代理人的协议相反，经销协议受到反垄断法的限制。原则上限制竞争是被禁止的，除非在第十一条TFEU（“欧洲联盟条约”）下它们不明显地限制竞争。有关在线销售的详细信息，请参阅Legalmondo上发布的“限制电子商务经销商”。
三．国际经销和法律选择
当制造商在国际范围内销售其产品或服务时，制造商和经销商的国家法律“碰撞”。为了解决冲突，创造法律确定性，当事人往往会选择适用的法律。通常，每个当事人都会试图适用它“自己的”，也许不是更有利的，但至少在国内外众所周知的法律。或者，双方可以就一个“中立的”，第三方国家的法律达成一致——比如在意大利制造商和德国经销商之间适用瑞士法，并且合同标准方面也有更多的自由。即使选择了法律，在国际贸易中也会有令人不悦的意外——正如“不同国家，不同风俗”的说法一样。
- 首先，因为适用法的选择可能无效——例如，在一些南美国家和中东地区。
- 其次，因为可能会有国际强制性规定(“overriding mandatory provisions”, “lois des police” or “Eingriffsnormen“) ，其对维护国家公共利益具有重要意义以至于“凌驾于”法律选择之上即尽管有其他可选择的有效力的法律其仍被适用。
- 再者，因为所选择的法律可能包含令人不悦的意外，比如德国的经销商商誉损害赔偿。
- 四．“德国”经销商赔偿
此外，德国法律可能会制造意外，特别是以经销商在终止时的善意赔偿请求为形式。虽然在德国法律下没有明确的经销商规则，但有广泛的判例法，并且经销商也适用不同的代理规则，如果以下两种情况得到满足：
经销商
- 整合到供应商的销售组织中；以及
- 在合同终止或期间有义务（由于协议或事实）转发客户数据
如果允许的话，经销商基本上也有权要求终止时的商誉补偿（在与代理人相同的条件下）。一般来说，这种商誉补偿的计算是基于经销商在过去一年中的新客户或经销商已经显著增加业务的已有客户所带来的利润。细节不同；德国法院接受不同的计算方法。
五、如何避免“德国”的经销商商誉赔偿
长期以来，经销商在德国以外但在欧洲经济区（“EEA”）以内经营，是否可以提前排除（即在终止合同前）在德国法律以及相似的代理法下（德国商法典.89b节）的经销商商誉赔偿，这一问题一直存在争议。
这一问题在提交德国联邦法院前被审查（第25／02／2016号决定，参考文献第七号ZR102/15）。被告为在德国成立的电气工业设备制造商。原告为在瑞典和其他欧洲经济区国家活动的经销商。由德国法支持的经销协议；任何签约后的补偿或者薪酬被排除。在被告终止协议后，原告作为经销商要求商誉赔偿。原告在下级法院没有成功，但德国联邦法院现在决定支持原告（并且，法兰克福高级地方法院在06／02／2016，第11号U 136/14（Kart）上采取同样的做法）。
裁决的重点是关于商誉赔偿条款的领土范围（德国商法典89b节）。根据该条款，代理人的商誉赔偿不能提前排除。在已有的判例法中，这一规定可能类似地适用于经销商（见上文）。然而，对于如果经销商在德国范围外，在欧盟/欧洲经济区内经营是否仍被强制支付商誉损害赔偿这一问题存有争议。德国联邦法院如今已经确认——尤其争论于（1）代理法的历史发展和（2）其保护代理商以及经销商的目的：在其他欧洲经济区国家而非德国经营的经销商应当和在德国经营的经销商一样受到保护；相关条款的目的是防止由于对制造商/供应商经济上的依赖而导致的不利的协议。最后，联邦法院认为没有必要向欧盟法院提交这一问题，因为它不属于《1986自营商业代理人指令》的范围。
新的判决与现行判例法相一致：德国联邦法院很可能会继续以此类推向经销商实施代理法。
合同惯例和未来合同起草的五个实用技巧：
1．商誉补偿是一种仅在销售协议出现之后的费用，但应事先考虑——并且，如果此费用可被避免或事先另行规定（例如：规定入门费）。
2.如果经销商在EEA欧洲经济区以外经营，商誉赔偿的索赔随时可被排除，例如：已经存在于经销协议中可被排除（德国商法典92c节；慕尼黑区域法院，11 / 01 / 2002决定，参考号为23 U 4416 / 01）
- 如果经销商在欧洲经济区内经营，适用德国法律并且满足上述两个条件，经销商的商誉损害赔偿的索赔不得在协议终止之前被排除。
- 经销商的德国商誉赔偿可以事先被排除，尤其当当事人:
(i) 排除转移客户数据；或
(ii) 强迫制造商封锁，停止使用，如有必要，在协议终止时删除此类客户数据（德国联邦法院，第05／02／2015号决定，参考第七号315/13文献）；或
(iii) 选择另一法律（因此，导致另一管辖权或仲裁）。
- 或者，当事人可以通过约定“入门费”(“Einstandszahlungen”)来减轻商誉赔偿的索赔——甚至可以推迟到协议终止，然后抵消对商誉赔偿的索赔。然而，此类入门费不可以不合理地过高（联邦法院，第24／02／1983号决定，参考第I ZR 14/81文献），其必须对应于回报值。例如：一个特别高的经销折扣或者一个长期协议期限（慕尼黑高等地区法院，04 / 12/1996的决定，参考号为7 U 3915/96，Saarbrücken高等地区法院，30 / 08 / 2013的决定，参考号为1 U 161/12）。简而言之，制造商必须证明，即使没有入门款，双方也不会同意更高的手续费（正如德国联邦法院2016年7月14日所决定的，参考第VII ZR 297/15文献）。b
是否有解约金？
在兼并案中解约金是常见的，通常由收购方和某些股东在协议中签订。
在收购案中解约金不常见，一般目标公司将承诺在收购不成功时向收购方支付解约金。在该情形下，鉴于要约收购在原则上须被告知目标公司股东，且可无须与目标公司本身的公司权益一致，因此前述条款的强制性可能会受到质疑。最终，任何解约金的金额不会妨碍对目标公司进行的任何潜在竞争收购。
目标公司可以同意不出售公司或其资产吗？
在提交公开竞标之前，如果目标公司的董事会认为收购方的收购符合目标公司的最佳利益，目标公司可与潜在收购方进行排他性的协商，或承诺不出售公司或其资产。收购方也可以将某些条件（如要求目标公司董事会或股东必须避免采取可能会对收购的成功产生负面影响的行动的条件）列入要约收购文件中。
目标公司可以同意发行股票或出售资产吗？
目标公司可能已在其章程中规定了抵制恶意收购的防御手段。但是，一旦启动要约收购，并且如果被动规则适用，则未经其股东的事先批准，目标公司必须避免采取可能对要约收购的成功产生负面影响的行动，例如发行新股票或出售其资产。
达成交易需要哪些承诺？
从目标公司的主要股东处得到其将出售股份的承诺，对交易的达成有很大助益。或者，收购方可以尝试，单独或与其一致行动人，收购目标公司超过30%的股份，进而触发发起强制要约收购的义务。否则，收购方可以在要约收购文件中添加要求最低持股数量的条款。
阿根廷 
巴西 
意大利 
乌拉圭 
法国 
埃及 
写信给 Ignacio
Commercial Agents – Indemnity for termination in trial period?
21 8 月 2018
-
德国
- 机构
When should an agency agreement be considered “international”?
Pursuant to the international private rules applicable in Italy (Art.1 Reg. 593/08 “Rome I”) an agreement is deemed “international” in the presence of “situations involving a conflict of laws”.
The situations which more often involve a conflict of laws in agency agreements– making them “international” – are (i) the principal’s seat being located in a country different from the agent’s seat country; or (ii) the agreement being performed abroad, even when the principal’s and the agent’s seats are both located in the same country.
When does Italian law apply to an agency agreement?
Under the “Rome I” Regulation, in principle Italian law may apply to an international agency agreement (i) if it is chosen by the parties as the law governing the agreement (either expressly, or as otherwise allowed by Art.3); or (ii) absent any choice of law, when the agent has its residence or seat in Italy (according to the “residence” concept under Article 19).
What are the main regulations of agency agreements in Italy?
The substantial regulations of agency agreements in Italy, with particular regard to the principal-agent relationship, can be found mainly in articles from 1742 to 1753 of the Civil Code. Such rules have been repeatedly modified following the adoption of the Directive 653/86/EC.
What is the role of the collective bargaining agreements?
Since many years, collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) have also been regulating agency agreements. These are agreements made on a regular basis between the associations representing principals and agents in different sectors (manufacture, trade and several others).
From a legal effectiveness perspective, a distinction can be drawn between two types of CBAs, i.e. CBAs having the force of law (effective “erga omnes”) – whose rules are however quite broad and thus have a limited scope of application – and CBAs of a contractual nature (“di diritto comune”) that have been signed from time to time over the years, and are meant to bind only those principals and agents which are members of those associations.
In general, CBAs intend to implement the Civil Code rules and those of the Directive 653/86. However, contractual CBAs often deviate from those rules, and some deviations are substantial. For example, CBAs allow a principal to unilaterally modify the agent’s territory, the contractual products, the range of customers, the commission. CBAs determine in a partially different manner the duration of the notice period when indefinite term agreements are terminated. CBAs have their own calculation of the agent’s remuneration for the post-contractual non-competition covenant. CBAs have peculiar regulations concerning the termination indemnity.
With particular regard to the contract termination indemnity, there have been serious issues of compliance between the CBAs and the Directive 653/86/CE. Indeed, such issues still remain unsolved despite some rulings from the EUCJ, because the Italian courts’ constant jurisprudence keeps the CBAs’ indemnity provisions in force.
According to the majority of scholarly opinions and case law, CBAs’ geographical scope of application is limited to the Italian territory.
Therefore, CBAs automatically apply to agency agreements which are governed by Italian law and are performed by the agent in Italy; but – in case of contractual CBAs – subject to the further condition that both parties are members to associations that entered into such Agreements. According to some scholars, it is sufficient that the principal alone is a member of such an association.
Even in the absence of such cumulative conditions, however, contractual CBAs may nonetheless apply if they are expressly referred to in the agency agreement, or their provisions are constantly complied with by the parties.
What are the other main requirements in agency agreements?
The “Enasarco”
Enasarco is a private law Foundation with which agents in Italy must be registered by law.
The Enasarco Foundation mainly administers a supplementary pension fund for agents, and a termination indemnity fund, called “FIRR” (referring to the termination indemnity as calculated in accordance with the criteria set forth by the CBAs in the different sectors).
Typically, a principal in a “domestic” agency agreement registers the agent with the Enasarco and pays contributions to both the above funds on a regular basis throughout the whole term of the agency agreement.
However, while registration and contribution to the pension fund are always mandatory as they are provided for by the law, contributions to the FIRR are instead mandatory only for those agency agreements which are governed by contractual CBAs.
Which rules apply to international agency agreements?
As far as registration with the Enasarco is concerned, the law and regulatory provisions are not so clear. However, important clarifications were provided by the Ministry of Labor in 2013 answering to a specific question (19.11.13 n.32).
Making reference to the European legislation (EC Regulation n.883/2004 as amended by Regulation n. 987/2009) the Ministry stated that registration with the Enasarco is mandatory in the following cases:
- agents operating in the Italian territory, in the name and on behalf of Italian or foreign principals having a seat or an office in Italy;
- Italian or foreign agents operating in Italy in the name and/or on behalf of Italian or foreign principals with or without a seat or office in Italy;
- agents residing in Italy and performing a substantial part of their activities in Italy;
- agents not residing in Italy, but having their main center of interest in Italy;
- agents habitually operating in Italy, but performing their activity exclusively abroad for a period not exceeding 24 months.
The above-mentioned Regulations obviously do not apply to those agency agreements that are to be performed outside the EU. Therefore, it should be checked case by case whether any international treaties binding the parties’ countries provide for the application of the Italian social security legislation.
Chamber of Commerce and Register of Businesses
Anyone wanting to start a business as a commercial agent in Italy, must file a “SCIA” (Certified Notice of Business Start) with the Chamber of Commerce having local jurisdiction. The Chamber of Commerce then registers the agent with the Register of Businesses if the agent is organized as a business entity, otherwise it registers the agent with a special section of the “REA” (List of Business and Administrative Information) of the same Chamber (see Legislative Decree n.59 dated 26.3.2010, implementing the Directive 2006/123/EC “Services Directive”).
Such formalities have replaced the former registration to the agents’ roll (“ruolo agenti”) which was abolished by said law. The new law also provides for a number of other mandatory requirements for agents wishing to start an activity. Such requirements concern education, experience, clean criminal records, etc.
Although failure to comply with the new registration requirements does not affect the validity of the agency agreement, a principal should nevertheless check that the Italian agent is registered before appointing him, as this is a mandatory requirement anyway.
Venue for disputes (art.409 and following of the Civil Procedure Code)
Pursuant to Article 409 and following of the Civil Procedure Code, if the agent mainly performs its contractual duties as an individual even if independently (so-called “parasubordinato” i.e. “semi-subordinate” agent) – provided the agency agreement is governed by Italian laws and Italian courts have jurisdiction – any disputes arising from the agency agreement shall be submitted to the Labor Court in the district where the agent is domiciled (see article 413 of the CPC) and the court proceedings shall be conducted according to procedural rules similar to those applicable to employment-related disputes.
In principle, said rules shall apply when the agent enters into the agreement as an individual or sole entrepreneur, while according to the majority of scholars and jurisprudence they do not apply when the agent is a company.
Applying the rules above to the most common situations in international agency agreements
Let’s now try to apply the rules described until now to the most frequent situations in international agency agreements, keeping in mind that those below are simple examples, while in the “real world” one should carefully check the circumstances of each specific case.
- Italian principal and foreign agent – agreement to be performed abroad
Italian law: it governs the agreement if chosen by the parties, without prejudice to any public policy (internationally mandatory) rules in the country where the agent has its residence and performs, pursuant to the Rome I Regulation.
CBAs: they do not govern the agreement automatically (because the agent performs abroad) but only when they have been expressly referred to in the agreement, or de facto applied. This could happen more or less intentionally, for example when an Italian principal uses with foreign agents the same contract forms as with Italian agents, which usually include many references to the CBAs.
Enasarco: typically, there are no registration or contribution obligations in favor of a non-Italian agent whose residence is abroad and performing his contractual duties only abroad.
Chamber of Commerce: there is no obligation to register in the above circumstances.
Procedural rules (article 409 and following, CPC): if Italian courts are properly chosen as the jurisdiction for all disputes, a foreign agent even if being an individual or sole entrepreneur may not take advantage of this provision to move the case to the courts of his own country. This is because art.413 cpc is a domestic provision on venue which presupposes the agent’s seat to be in Italy. Further, the jurisdiction rules set forth by the EU legislation should prevail, as was ruled by the Italian Court of Cassation and stated by important scholars.
- Foreign principal and Italian agent – agreement to be performed in Italy
Italian law: it governs the agreement if chosen by the parties or, even in the absence of any choice, as an effect of the agent having his residence or seat in Italy.
CBAs: those having force of law (“erga omnes”) govern the agreement, whereas those having contractual nature are unlikely to apply automatically, as the foreign principal typically would not be a member to any of the Italian associations having signed a CBA. However, they might apply if referred to in the agreement or de facto applied.
Enasarco: a foreign principal shall register the Italian agent to the Enasarco. Failure to do so might imply penalties and/or damages claims from the agent. As a consequence of such registration, the principal will have to contribute to the social security fund, while he should not be obliged to contribute to the FIRR (fund for termination indemnity). However, a principal who makes regular contributions to the FIRR even when not due, might be considered as having impliedly accepted the CBAs as applicable to the agency agreement.
Chamber of Commerce: the Italian agent has to be registered with the Chamber of Commerce and therefore the principal should make sure that the agent has complied with this requirement before entering into the agreement.
Procedural rules (art.409 and following, CPC): if Italian courts have jurisdiction (whether by the parties’ choice or as the place of performance of the services pursuant to Regulation 1215/12) and the agent is an individual or a sole entrepreneur with a seat in Italy, these rules should apply.
- Italian principal and Italian agent– agreement to be performed abroad
Italian law: it governs the agreement if chosen by the parties, or, in the absence of any choice, if the agent has his residence or seat in Italy.
CBAs: they would not apply (as the agent performs abroad) unless expressly referred to in the agreement, or de facto applied.
Enasarco: according to the Ministry of Labor’s opinion, registration is mandatory when the agent, although being engaged to work abroad, has his residence and performs a substantial part of his business in Italy, or has in Italy his center of interest, or performs abroad for a period not exceeding 24 months, provided the EU Regulations apply. In case the agency agreement is to be performed in a non-EU country, it has to assessed from time to time whether registration is mandatory.
Chamber of Commerce: an agent having started his business and established as an entity in Italy is in principle obliged to register with the Chamber of Commerce.
Procedural Rules (articles 409 and following of the CPC): the rules apply if the agent is an Italian based individual or sole entrepreneur and the Italian jurisdiction is agreed upon.
- Foreign principal and foreign agent – agreement to be performed in Italy
Italian law: in principle, it governs the agreement only if chosen by the parties.
CBAs: if the agreement is governed by Italian law, the CBAs having force of law apply, while those having contractual value will not apply unless expressly referred to, or de facto applied.
Enasarco: according to the Ministry of Labor’s opinion, when EU Regulations apply, registration may be required from a foreign principal in favor of an agent residing abroad, if such agent operates in Italy or has his center of interest in Italy. Otherwise, a case by case analysis will be needed under the applicable laws.
Chamber of Commerce: in principle, an agent established as an entity abroad is not obliged to register in Italy. However, the issue could be more complex if the agent has a seat and performs his activity mainly in Italy. Such circumstances may also affect the determination of the law governing the agency agreement.
Procedural Rules (articles 409 and following of the CPC): absent any different choice, Italian courts might have jurisdiction as Italy is the place of performance of the services. However, the above-mentioned rules should not apply if the agent has no seat or residence in Italy.
Conclusive remarks
Hopefully this analysis, though not exhaustive, can help understanding the possible consequences of applying Italian law to an international agency agreement, and to make prudent choices when drafting the agreement. As always, we recommend not to rely on standard contract forms or precedents without having paid due attention to all the circumstances of each case.
The Spanish Law of the Agency Contract and the European Directive provide for the agent -except in certain cases-, goodwill compensation (clientele) when the relationship is terminated, based on the remuneration received by the Agent during the life of the contract. It is, then, a burden that in general every Principal will have pending when the contract ends.
The temptation is to try to get rid of that payment and for this clients consult us frequently about strategies or tactics. I will try to summarize some of them indicating the chances of success (or not) that may have, both in the negotiation / drafting phase of the contract, and in the resolution phase.
- Change the name of the contract
The first idea is to make a contract “similar” to the agency or call it in a different way (services, intermediation, representation contracts…). However, the change of name does not have any incidence since the contracts “are what they are” and not what the parties call them. So if there is a continued mediation in exchange for remuneration, there is a good chance that a judge will consider it an agency contract, whatever we call it, and with all its consequences.
- Limitation of compensation in the contract
Another temptation in the drafting phase of the contract is to agree compensation less than the maximum legally envisaged, provide for payment in advance for the duration of the contract, or directly eliminate it.
None of these solutions would be valid if they try to reduce the possibility of the Agent to receive the legal maximum, or for reasons not foreseen in the Law or the Directive. The law is imperative.
- Linking different agency contracts
Given that the compensation is calculated according to the remunerations of the last five years and the clientele created, the temptation is to link several shorter contracts to consider only the clients of the last period.
This will not necessarily be a good idea if most of the customers were created last year for instance, but it may also be useless because the Spanish law and the Directive provide that the fixed-term contract that continues to be executed becomes indefinite. The judge may consider all linked contracts as one.
For this strategy to have the possibility of being useful, it would be necessary to liquidate each substituted contract, declare that “nothing has to be claimed by the parties” and that the successive contracts are sufficiently separated and have different entities, drafting, extension, etc. If the procedure is well thought out, it could be a way to get rid of a greater indemnity by clientele: a well-written pact whereby the agent declares the compensation received, and the following contract does not mimic the content and immediately to the previous one.
- Submitting the agreement to a foreign law
In international contracts the temptation is to submit the contract to a right that is not Spanish, particularly when the Principal has that citizenship.
The idea can be good or bad according to the chosen law and as long as it has some relation with the business. As is known, in the EU the Directive establishes minimum conditions that national laws must respect. But nothing prevents these laws from providing more advantageous conditions for agents. This means that, for example, choosing French law would be, in general, a bad idea for the Principal because compensation in that country is usually higher.
In some cases, the choice of a law outside the European Union that does not provide compensation for clientele when the agent is European has been rejected because that the minimum right recognized in the Directive has not been respected.
- Submit the contract to non-national rules and judges
Another less frequent possibility is to submit the contract to rules not from a country, but to general commercial norms (Lex Mercatoria) and to agree on a lower compensation.
This is very uncommon and may not be very useful depending on who is to interpret the contract and where the agent resides. If, for example, the agent resides in Spain and who is going to interpret the contract is a Spanish judge, he will most likely interpret the contract according to his/her own rules without being bound by what the contract envisages. This clause would have been useless.
- Submit the contract to arbitration
The question will be different if the contract is subject to arbitration. In this case, arbitrators are not necessarily subject to interpreting a contract according to their own national regulations if the contract is subject to different one. In this case, it would be possible that they felt freer to consider the contract exclusively, especially when the agent was not of their nationality, did not know what the law of the agent’s country and was not bound by the guarantees provided for his protection.
- Mediation in the agency contract
Mediation is an alternative dispute resolution system that can also be used in agency contracts. In mediation, the parties resolve the dispute by themselves with the help of a mediator.
In this case, given that the mediator is not deciding, it is possible for the parties to freely reach an agreement whereby the agent agrees to a minor indemnification if, for example, other advantages are conferred upon him, if he comes to the conviction of having less right, difficulty of proof, if he prefers to save other costs, time, energy for your new business, etc.
Mediators ensure the balance of the parties, but nothing prevents them to agree a compensation lower than the legal maximum (after the conclusion of the contract it is possible to negotiate a lower than the legal maximum). To foresee the possibility of mediation in the agency contract is, therefore, a good idea: this will permit the parties to better address and negotiate this compensation. In addition, providing for mediation does not limit the rights of any of the parties to withdraw and continue through the courts demanding the legal maximum.
- Imputing to the agent a previous breach
When the contract ends, this is undoubtedly the cause that is most often attempted: when the contract is to be resolved, the Principal tries to argue that the Agent has previously failed to comply and that this is why the contract is being resolved.
The law and the Directive exempt the payment of goodwill compensation when the agent has breach his obligations. But in that case, the Principal must be able to prove it when the agent discusses it. And it will not always be easy. The Principal must provide clear evidence and for this it will be convenient to collect information and documentation on the breach sufficiently and in advance and of sufficient importance (minor breaches are not usually accepted). Therefore, if the Principal wishes to follow this path it is advisable to prepare the arguments and evidences time before the agreement ends. It is strongly recommend contacting an expert advisor as soon as possible: he will help you to minimize the risks.
Commercial agents are very suitable for expanding one’s business into new markets – especially for two reasons: First, because they generally have a good expertise of the market (especially if they reside in that country). Second, because their remuneration (“commission”) can be configurated completely profit-oriented (= remunerated only if they successfully negotiate a new transaction), and related to the turnover they generate.
Nevertheless, both the supplier and the commercial agent may feel the need for an initial period, in which both get to know each other, the product, the market and the customers as good as possible to subsequently evaluate how to proceed on that market. Therefore, they may agree on a trial period within which the commercial agency contract can be terminated more easily and sooner than without or after such trial period, e.g.:
“This Agreement shall come into effect on [●] and shall be in force for a trial period of [●] months (“Trial Period”) during which each Party can terminate the Agreement with [●] months written notice. After such Trial Period, the Agreement shall continue indefinitely, unless terminated according to the rules below.”
Even if the agency agreement is terminated within such trial period, however, the agent may be entitled to indemnity or compensation – as the Court of Justice of the EU just now confirmed (Case Conseils et mise en relations (CMR) SARL, decision of 19 April 2018, C-645/16).
The court basically argues with the wording, context and objective of the Commercial Agency Directive:
- The Commercial Agency Directive also applies to ‘”trial periods”.
- Ending a commercial agency contract – even within an agreed trial period – constitutes a “termination” of the agency contract, which triggers the claims for indemnity or compensation – because the commercial agency contract has already been definitively concluded (understanding contrary to French case law, e.g. Cour de Cassation, Case No. 14-17894).
- Goodwill indemnity or compensation are not forfeited because termination within the trial period is not included in the exhaustive list of exceptions in Article 18 Commercial Agency Directive.
- The parties may derogate from the commercial agent’s mandatory rights only from the end of the contract (Article 19 Commercial Agency Directive) because the Commercial Agency Directive aims to protect the commercial agent vis-à-vis the principal (recital 2 of the Commercial Agency Directive).
Practical tips
- Parties are free to agree on trial periods because it is covered by freedom of contract.
- At termination, the commercial agent is, as a matter of principle, entitled to an indemnity or compensation – to “indemnify the agent for his past services from which the principal will continue to benefit beyond the termination”, as the EU Court of Justice now put it. Whether the agent can claim indemnity or compensation depends on the law chosen by the parties (or, in absence of choice, by the law of the country where the commercial agent has his habitual residence).
- As far as the indemnity (payable e.g. according to German law) is concerned, its amount strongly depends on the commercial agent’s performance during the term of the contract – because the claim accrues if and to the extent that (i) the agent has brought the principal new customers or (ii) has significantly increased the business with existing customers and (iii) the principal continues to derive substantial benefits from such business, plus (iv) such indemnity must be equitable. As a maximum, the indemnity shall not exceed of the past five years’ average annual remuneration (including commissions and other payments). Such possible costs should therefore be included in one’s business planning before starting to distribute products or services through commercial agents.
- Throughout the EU, agency agreements are widespread in a vast variety of industries: roughly 740,000 commercial agents operate for 1.7 million companies and generate sales of EUR 260 billion. These figures from 2012 keep growing as indicate Eurostat’s data, reported by the European Commission in its Refit Evaluation. The EU Member States with the most commercial agents are Slovakia (35k) Czech Republic (42k), Germany (42k), France (50k), Spain (50k) and – by far – Italy (220k). If the agent operates outside the European Economic Area, Principals and commercial agents are free to derogate even from the otherwise mandatory Commercial Agency Directive, especially if German law is chosen. For details, please see the article “Commercial Agents outside the EEA – No Goodwill Indemnity (Ingmar reloaded)”.
- Alternatively, one can also do business through distributors or franchisees or other intermediaries – where, however, an indemnity may arise at well, especially vis-à-vis distributors. For details, see the article “German Distributor Indemnity – How to avoid it”.
If you want to develop your distribution network abroad, a network of commercial agents is the easiest way, and France is no exception. Before entering into an agency contract ruled by French law, it is nevertheless advisable to know its main features, which will be discussed in this post.
Definition
A commercial agent is a professional representative who negotiates and eventually concludes contracts in the name of and on behalf of his principal.
The French Commercial Code (Article L134-1) defines a commercial agent precisely as:
«L’agent commercial est défini comme un mandataire qui, à titre de profession indépendante, sans être lié par un contrat de louage de services, est chargé, de façon permanente, de négocier et, éventuellement, de conclure des contrats de vente, d’achat, de location ou de prestation de services, au nom et pour le compte de producteurs, d’industriels de commerçants ou d’autres agents commerciaux.»
«The commercial agent is an agent who, as an independent professional, without being bound by an employment contract, is in a permanent position to negotiate and eventually to enter into contracts for the sale, purchase, rent/hire or performance of service in the name and on behalf of manufacturers, industrialists, traders or other commercial agents.»
The definition shows that the agent is independent: he/she is free to organise his/her own employment activity and business (sole agency, limited company etc.). This notion is fundamental, because the more the agent will be present and active in the organisation of the principal activity, the more the contract will be at risk of being requalified as a VRP (employee contract of sales representative) contract by the courts.
In the spirit of the contractual relationship and in the drafting of the contract itself, one must be very careful not to confuse an agent with a VRP since, according to French law, the latter is considered an employee, with greater rights and compensation for termination of contract.
Requirements
The agent must be registered in the register of commercial agents at the Registry of the Commercial Court at his place of domicile.
Contract form
The written form is not mandatory but strongly recommended. Article L134-2 of the Commercial Code provides that each party may request both the contract and addenda to be in writing.
Execution of the contract – important clauses
- Duration: for a fixed period or indefinite.
- Fee: a commission freely defined between the parties.
- Territory: it is very important to define the territory with precision and avoid wide generic clauses such as “world”.
- Exclusive: the clause must specify whether the exclusivity is in relation to the territory and/or on the clientele in a precise manner and if the principal reserves the right to intervene.
- Notice of withdrawal (Article L134-11, paragraph 3 of the Commercial Code): 1 month for the first year, 2 months for the second year, 3 months thereafter.
Post-contract – important clauses
Post-contractual non-competition clauses (Article L134-14 of the Commercial Code) must be in written form and limited to a maximum of 2 years post-contract.
The non-competition clauses restriction (territory, customers, products) must not be so restrictive as to prohibit the agent from working after the end of the contract. Therefore customers and products included in the agreement must be competitors of the type of goods subject of the agency contract. Otherwise, the courts will consider the clause as null and non-existent, entitling the agent to claim compensation.
French law does not provide any compensation for compliance with this clause.
After termination of the contract, the agent is entitled to an indemnity for termination as compensation (Article L134-12 of the Commercial Code). It is a rule of public order, therefore, the clause that provides for an exemption of this entitlement will be considered null and non-existent.
The agent has one year to assert this right to severance indemnity.
There is no requirement of keeping it in writing, however, it is advisable to write a notice of receipt as proof of the termination.
The amount of the compensation is equal to two years of commissions (gross) received by the agent. This is to be seen as a maximum measure and it is up to the principal to prove the reason as to why the agent should be entitled to a lower compensation.
In the event of litigation, the courts will at their discretion evaluate the amount of the request of a maximum of two years.
Cases in which compensation is not due:
- Assignment of the contract to another agent;
- Termination of the contract by the agent;
- Serious non-fulfilment of the contract by the agent.
Serious breach of contract can result from the non-fulfilment of clauses that are defined in the contract as important or must be assessed from time to time with the advice of your lawyer.
Focus: the termination of contract due to retirement
The agent is entitled to the indemnity for termination as compensation also when he/she ceases the activity and retires.
French jurisprudence (in particular the jurisprudence of the Court of Cassation), however, requires a more specific check of the reason for the termination of the contract: the agent must not only claim to be entitled to the retirement pension, he should also assert he is not in physical conditions to be able to work anymore.
Which is the competent French court?
Even if the agent is a trading company, the nature of the contract is still civil. By virtue of this, the competent court varies according to the person who brings the claim.
If the agent is the claimant, he can choose between “tribunal de grande instance” and “tribunal de commerce”.
If, on the other hand, the principal is the claimant, he must also begin the claim before the “tribunal de grande instance”.
Based on our experience in many years advising and representing companies in the commercial distribution (in Spanish jurisdiction but with foreign manufacturers or distributors), the following are the six key essential elements for manufacturers (suppliers) and retailers (distributors) when establishing a distribution relationship.
These ideas are relevant when companies intend to start their commercial relationship but they should not be neglected and verified even when there are already existing contacts.
The signature of the contract
Although it could seem obvious, the signature of a distribution agreement is less common than it might seem. It often happens that along the extended relationship, the corporate structures change and what once was signed with an entity, has not been renewed, adapted, modified or replaced when the situation has been transformed. It is very convenient to have well documented the relationship at every moment of its existence and to be sure that what has been covered legally is also enforceable y the day-to-day commercial relationship. It is advisable this work to be carried out by legal specialists closely with the commercial department of the company. Perfectly drafted clauses from a legal standpoint will be useless if overtaken or not understood by the day-to-day activity. And, of course, no contract is signed as a “mere formality” and then modified by verbal agreements or practices.
The proper choice of contract
If the signature of the distribution contract is important, the choice of the correct type is essential. Many of the conflicts that occur, especially in long-term relationships, begin with the interpretation of the type of relationship that has been signed. Even with a written text (and with an express title), the intention of the parties remains often unclear (and so the agreement). Is the “distributor” really so? Does he buy and resell or there are only sporadic supply relationships? Is there just a representative activity (ie, the distributor is actually an “agent“)? Is there a mixed relationship (sometimes represents, sometimes buys and resells)? The list could continue indefinitely. Even in many of the relationships that currently exist I am sure that the interpretation given by the Supplier and the Distributor could be different.
Monitoring of legal and business relations
If it is quite frequent not to have a clear written contract, it happens in almost all the distribution relationships than once the agreement has been signed, the day-to-day commercial activity modifies what has been agreed. Why commercial relations seem to neglect what has been written in an agreement? It is quite frequent contracts in which certain obligations for distributors are included (reporting on the market, customers, minimum purchases), but which in practice are not respected (it seems complicated, there is a good relationship between the parties, and nobody remembers what was agreed by people no longer working at the company…). However, it is also quite frequent to try to use these (real?) defaults later on when the relationship starts having problems. At that moment, parties try to hide behind these violations to terminate the contracts although these practices were, in a sort of way, accepted as a new procedure. Of course no agreement can last forever and for that reason is highly recommendable a joint and periodical monitoring between the legal adviser (preferably an independent one with the support of the general managers) and the commercial department to take into account new practices and to have a provision in the contractual documents.
Evidences about customers
In distribution contracts, evidences about customers will be essential in case of termination. Parties (mainly the supplier) are quite interested in showing evidences on who (supplier or distributor) procured the customers. Are they a result of the distributor activity or are they obtained as a consequence of the reputation of the trademark? Evidences on customers could simplify or even avoid future conflicts. The importance of the clientele and its possible future activity will be a key element to define the compensation to which the distributor will pretend to be eligible.
Evidences on purchases and sales
Another essential element and quite often forgotten is the justification of purchases to the supplier and subsequent sales by distributors. In any distribution agreement distributors acquire the products and resell them to the final customers. A future compensation to the distributor will consider the difference between the purchase prices and resale prices (the margin). It is therefore advisable to be able to establish the correspondent evidence on such information in order to better prepare a possible claim.
Damages in case of termination of contracts
Similarly, it would be convenient to justify what damages have been suffered as a result of the termination of a contract: has the distributor made investments by indication of the supplier that are still to be amortized? Has the distributor hired new employees for a line of business that have to be dismissed because of the termination of the contract (costs of compensation)? Has the distributor rented new premises signing long-term contracts due to the expectations on the agreement? Please, take into account that the Distributor is an independent trader and, as such, he assumes the risks of his activity. But to the extent he is acting on a distribution network he shall be subject to the directions, suggestions and expectations created by the supplier. These may be relevant to later determine the damages caused by the termination of the contract.
Brazilian legislation requires every nonresident that holds quotas, capital or shares of a Brazilian company appoints an attorney-in-fact that resides in the country, with powers to receive service of process.
Besides granting the power required by law, foreign partners usually grant other powers to their attorneys-in-fact, in order to facilitate the procedures, since all documents executed abroad must be notarized and Apostilled, and once they arrive in Brazil they must be translated by a sworn translator and registered before the Public Registry of Titles and Documents, in order to be valid in Brazil, which is time and money consuming.
Also, all foreign companies holding quotas, capital or shares of the Brazilian company, need a Taxpayer number, called CNPJ. The taxpayer number is not for tax payment purposes, but for controlling purposes only. The foreign partners / holder need to grant a power of attorney for their enrollment at CNPJ, and representation before the Federal Revenue in all matters.
By the time the company is incorporated the Power of Attorney granting the above-mentioned mandatory powers must be presented before the Board of Trade.
Moreover, all Foreign Direct Investment must be registered at the Central Bank of Brazil. This means that every time the foreign shareholder/partner transfers money to the Brazilian company as investment, the respective exchange agreement must be registered at the Central Bank. Such registration is done electronically.
The main effects of such registration are the possibility of remitting dividends and of repatriating the capital invested.
In view of the above, the documents to be presented at the incorporation of a company in Brazil are:
- Power of Attorney granting to a Brazilian resident powers to accept service of process, for enrollment at CNPJ and representation before the Federal Revenue;
- In case the foreign partners/shareholders/holder are/is a natural person, a copy of his/her passport;
- In case the foreign partners/shareholders/holder are/is a legal entity:
– Copy of the passport of the legal representative of the foreign partners/shareholders/holder; and
– Updated Certificate issued by the Board of Trade of the foreign partners/shareholders/holder’s head offices attesting: (a) its existence and good standing, and (b) its legal representatives for the purposes of evidencing that the company was duly represented in the Power of Attorney granted. This document (or a separate one issued by a public authority) must also contain the head offices address, name of shareholders, capital and objectives.
Note that all documents need to be duly notarized and apostilled. Once they arrive in Brazil, they will undergo sworn translation and will be registered at the Public Registry Office in order to be valid.
We would like to point out that the Federal Revenue and commercial banks have increasingly been requesting a series of complementary documents for compliance reasons, so that the final beneficiaries (natural person) of each foreign company holding quotas, capital or shares of Brazilian entities may be identified.
At the chosen bank’s own discretion, other documents may be necessary, as balance sheets, statements and corporate documentation until the end controller (natural person) is identified. These documents must be presented for the opening of a bank account, and banks have been taking quite some time to open the account.
当进入新市场时，有不同的经销策略可供选择（1）在零售，汽车和批发贸易中，经销协议相当普遍（2）在国际经销协议中，双方可以选择适用的法律（3）无论是否被选择，适用的法律仍可能含有令人不快的条款，如德国法律下的商誉赔偿（4）本文将会展示如何可以避免这种令人不快的条款- 参考德国联邦法院（5）的2016年最新判决。
一．进入新市场
进入新市场时，存在不同的结构。选择哪一个取决于所期望的策略：让自己的员工直接销售，或者通过销售商，特许经营商，佣金代理商等销售代理间接销售贴牌产品，或者在许可范围内制造和销售第三方产品。有关德国销售的详细信息，请参阅Legalmondo上发布的“德国经销协议”。
二.经销协议
在零售（特别是电子，化妆品，珠宝，一些时尚用品），汽车和批发贸易中，分销系统是特别常见的 – 无论销售中介是否是指“分销商”，“中间商”，“经销商”，“专业零售商”，“特许经销商”，或“授权经销商”。经销商是个体经营的、独立的承包商，不断以自己的名义和自己的账户出售和推广产品。他们承担销售风险，反之亦然 – 制造商的利润相当低。经销商受到的保护通常较商业代理人少（在欧盟内，1986自营商业代理人的指令适用于欧盟成员国的各自的国家法律。）与销售代理人的协议相反，经销协议受到反垄断法的限制。原则上限制竞争是被禁止的，除非在第十一条TFEU（“欧洲联盟条约”）下它们不明显地限制竞争。有关在线销售的详细信息，请参阅Legalmondo上发布的“限制电子商务经销商”。
三．国际经销和法律选择
当制造商在国际范围内销售其产品或服务时，制造商和经销商的国家法律“碰撞”。为了解决冲突，创造法律确定性，当事人往往会选择适用的法律。通常，每个当事人都会试图适用它“自己的”，也许不是更有利的，但至少在国内外众所周知的法律。或者，双方可以就一个“中立的”，第三方国家的法律达成一致——比如在意大利制造商和德国经销商之间适用瑞士法，并且合同标准方面也有更多的自由。即使选择了法律，在国际贸易中也会有令人不悦的意外——正如“不同国家，不同风俗”的说法一样。
- 首先，因为适用法的选择可能无效——例如，在一些南美国家和中东地区。
- 其次，因为可能会有国际强制性规定(“overriding mandatory provisions”, “lois des police” or “Eingriffsnormen“) ，其对维护国家公共利益具有重要意义以至于“凌驾于”法律选择之上即尽管有其他可选择的有效力的法律其仍被适用。
- 再者，因为所选择的法律可能包含令人不悦的意外，比如德国的经销商商誉损害赔偿。
- 四．“德国”经销商赔偿
此外，德国法律可能会制造意外，特别是以经销商在终止时的善意赔偿请求为形式。虽然在德国法律下没有明确的经销商规则，但有广泛的判例法，并且经销商也适用不同的代理规则，如果以下两种情况得到满足：
经销商
- 整合到供应商的销售组织中；以及
- 在合同终止或期间有义务（由于协议或事实）转发客户数据
如果允许的话，经销商基本上也有权要求终止时的商誉补偿（在与代理人相同的条件下）。一般来说，这种商誉补偿的计算是基于经销商在过去一年中的新客户或经销商已经显著增加业务的已有客户所带来的利润。细节不同；德国法院接受不同的计算方法。
五、如何避免“德国”的经销商商誉赔偿
长期以来，经销商在德国以外但在欧洲经济区（“EEA”）以内经营，是否可以提前排除（即在终止合同前）在德国法律以及相似的代理法下（德国商法典.89b节）的经销商商誉赔偿，这一问题一直存在争议。
这一问题在提交德国联邦法院前被审查（第25／02／2016号决定，参考文献第七号ZR102/15）。被告为在德国成立的电气工业设备制造商。原告为在瑞典和其他欧洲经济区国家活动的经销商。由德国法支持的经销协议；任何签约后的补偿或者薪酬被排除。在被告终止协议后，原告作为经销商要求商誉赔偿。原告在下级法院没有成功，但德国联邦法院现在决定支持原告（并且，法兰克福高级地方法院在06／02／2016，第11号U 136/14（Kart）上采取同样的做法）。
裁决的重点是关于商誉赔偿条款的领土范围（德国商法典89b节）。根据该条款，代理人的商誉赔偿不能提前排除。在已有的判例法中，这一规定可能类似地适用于经销商（见上文）。然而，对于如果经销商在德国范围外，在欧盟/欧洲经济区内经营是否仍被强制支付商誉损害赔偿这一问题存有争议。德国联邦法院如今已经确认——尤其争论于（1）代理法的历史发展和（2）其保护代理商以及经销商的目的：在其他欧洲经济区国家而非德国经营的经销商应当和在德国经营的经销商一样受到保护；相关条款的目的是防止由于对制造商/供应商经济上的依赖而导致的不利的协议。最后，联邦法院认为没有必要向欧盟法院提交这一问题，因为它不属于《1986自营商业代理人指令》的范围。
新的判决与现行判例法相一致：德国联邦法院很可能会继续以此类推向经销商实施代理法。
合同惯例和未来合同起草的五个实用技巧：
1．商誉补偿是一种仅在销售协议出现之后的费用，但应事先考虑——并且，如果此费用可被避免或事先另行规定（例如：规定入门费）。
2.如果经销商在EEA欧洲经济区以外经营，商誉赔偿的索赔随时可被排除，例如：已经存在于经销协议中可被排除（德国商法典92c节；慕尼黑区域法院，11 / 01 / 2002决定，参考号为23 U 4416 / 01）
- 如果经销商在欧洲经济区内经营，适用德国法律并且满足上述两个条件，经销商的商誉损害赔偿的索赔不得在协议终止之前被排除。
- 经销商的德国商誉赔偿可以事先被排除，尤其当当事人:
(i) 排除转移客户数据；或
(ii) 强迫制造商封锁，停止使用，如有必要，在协议终止时删除此类客户数据（德国联邦法院，第05／02／2015号决定，参考第七号315/13文献）；或
(iii) 选择另一法律（因此，导致另一管辖权或仲裁）。
- 或者，当事人可以通过约定“入门费”(“Einstandszahlungen”)来减轻商誉赔偿的索赔——甚至可以推迟到协议终止，然后抵消对商誉赔偿的索赔。然而，此类入门费不可以不合理地过高（联邦法院，第24／02／1983号决定，参考第I ZR 14/81文献），其必须对应于回报值。例如：一个特别高的经销折扣或者一个长期协议期限（慕尼黑高等地区法院，04 / 12/1996的决定，参考号为7 U 3915/96，Saarbrücken高等地区法院，30 / 08 / 2013的决定，参考号为1 U 161/12）。简而言之，制造商必须证明，即使没有入门款，双方也不会同意更高的手续费（正如德国联邦法院2016年7月14日所决定的，参考第VII ZR 297/15文献）。b
是否有解约金？
在兼并案中解约金是常见的，通常由收购方和某些股东在协议中签订。
在收购案中解约金不常见，一般目标公司将承诺在收购不成功时向收购方支付解约金。在该情形下，鉴于要约收购在原则上须被告知目标公司股东，且可无须与目标公司本身的公司权益一致，因此前述条款的强制性可能会受到质疑。最终，任何解约金的金额不会妨碍对目标公司进行的任何潜在竞争收购。
目标公司可以同意不出售公司或其资产吗？
在提交公开竞标之前，如果目标公司的董事会认为收购方的收购符合目标公司的最佳利益，目标公司可与潜在收购方进行排他性的协商，或承诺不出售公司或其资产。收购方也可以将某些条件（如要求目标公司董事会或股东必须避免采取可能会对收购的成功产生负面影响的行动的条件）列入要约收购文件中。
目标公司可以同意发行股票或出售资产吗？
目标公司可能已在其章程中规定了抵制恶意收购的防御手段。但是，一旦启动要约收购，并且如果被动规则适用，则未经其股东的事先批准，目标公司必须避免采取可能对要约收购的成功产生负面影响的行动，例如发行新股票或出售其资产。
达成交易需要哪些承诺？
从目标公司的主要股东处得到其将出售股份的承诺，对交易的达成有很大助益。或者，收购方可以尝试，单独或与其一致行动人，收购目标公司超过30%的股份，进而触发发起强制要约收购的义务。否则，收购方可以在要约收购文件中添加要求最低持股数量的条款。
